This time- and cost-efficient meeting puts the interview function of the first date "front and center." Unlike high school students whose names and addresses are certainly known to administrative offices, the homeless are essentially an anonymous research population. 177(3):73-84. The researcher should tell respondents how their privacy will be protected. In asking a closedended question about the respondent's sex, the researcher only need supply two response options: male and female. 1991. This sales job is best accomplished with a persuasive introductory statement or cover letter (for mailed questionnaires). Any questions that might threaten the respondent should really be delayed until after you have won the trust of your respondent. Baumrind D. 1966. Explanatory research makes a firm commitment to causal analysis. Electronic surveillance is a fast growing segment of the security industry. Science also insists on our following systematic, methodical "rules" for gathering our empirical evidence. We can't say a piece of bad news caused us to blow up at our kids if we got the bad news after we lost our temper. In considering the privacy issue, the researcher should be prepared to evaluate the research site on a continuum of locations ranging from private to public. In this paper, we describe a new workflow for data integration 1. yes 2. no The long and the short of it Not surprisingly, researchers usually prefer long questionnaires (and interviews) to short ones. The multiple-form technique is rather easy to execute when we are assessing single-item measures. And for help drawing the line between permissiveness and authoritative parenting, seethis Parenting Science article about the permissive parenting style. If the researcher has done a good job drawing the samples for each wave of the study (i.e., if she or he has selected a representative sample each time), then a simple comparison of the data from each wave will reveal whether or not the population has changed its attitudes toward gun control. While we must expect some degree of measurement error (either noise or bias), we must nonetheless try to keep both types of errors to a minimum. Essentially judgments are made (often by experts in a 64 ASSESSING MEASURES field) as to whether or not the selected empirical indicators really do represent the full content of a concept's nominal definition. We expect other drivers to engage in what Goffman (1963) called "civil inattention" - i.e., to pretend they don't see or hear us belting out a tune or yelling at our kids when we're stopped at traffic lights or tollbooths. Internet rumors, however, are particularly hard to squelch because individuals are quite willing to believe anything they learn from the "allknowing" computer. This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Most people can't do that in seven years And yet, all over the country, lovelorn singles are trying to accomplish exactly that feat, every day. Knowing when and how to probe effectively are two critical interview skills. What's the "safest" family vehicle? The question, however, is whether or not the diet will work as well if used in a non-experimental setting? Once at the homepage, click on the Knowledge Base link, and then click the Contents link. We've already considered three Z scores in some detail: a Z score of +/1 encompasses 68.26% of the area around the mean; a Z score of +/2 encompasses 95.44% of the area around the mean; a Z score of +/3 encompasses 99.74% of the area around the mean. Despite its recognized strength for studying individual change, the panel design can be a difficult one to execute. (Another way of making this point is to ask if any of the previously mentioned variables - income, political affiliation, .attitude toward abortion - could cause my age? It is most reassuring, then, to realize that science is once again on the case when it comes to the matter of verifying the accuracy of causal assertions. Concepts and theories present us with abstract explanations of the world around us. Lack of method variance in self-reported affect and perceptions at work: Reality or artifact? If you have your shoes on or if the scale is old (and has weak springs) or if you're leaning back on your heels, your true weight is probably not accurately reflected in the 142 reading. Every day, like it or not, we are bombarded by facts, figures, news, and opinions; we are connected to countless information sources about our local community, our society, and our world. The interviewer might say "So what I'm hearing you say is that freshman year was an academic disaster." A thorough operational definition should really "instruct" us on how we might conduct the measurement process ourselves. The sampling interval is a systematic skipping pattern that will speed up the selection process. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Figure 12.4 Polygon of student ages Figure 12.5 Pictures of variation 191 192 D E S C R I P T I V E STATISTICS Picturing correlation Graphing associations between variables may actually be one statistical tool you'll find both instructive and enjoyable. 2002. Longitudinal Research Designs Longitudinal research collects data at two or more points in time. Imagine that a study of churches finds a positive correlation between the average income level of a congregation and average weekly church offerings. The ideal headline length. And using the properties of the normal curve, researchers cast this area in the language of probabilities; they treat the area under the curve as predictable. In particular, we proposed and tested the mediating role of learning goal orientation on the relationship between authoritarian leadership and employee performance. Advertisers urge us to equate "cool" with the latest clothing line, popularity with the right 50 MAKING THE ABSTRACT CONCRETE beverage (or fast food), and a static-free existence with the correct mobile phone service. You are the head of a company with a social conscience. A good interviewer will learn to respect silences. Science and its research methods promote a critical assessment of information before that information is accepted as accurate. Do the dynamics of the experiment influence how these "hand-selected" people will react under experimental conditions? Compared with higher power distance employees, employees expecting to be strongly connected to authority figures may feel disrespected and unduly controlled when leaders exhibit authoritarianism. If the variables are moving in the same direction (both are increasing or both are decreasing together), we denote that by reporting the coefficient as a positive number. The second one shows a positive relationship (Pearson r = 0.607) between educational levels for parents. As you may remember, the pollsters were indeed correct. According to opponents of gays in the military, nothing less than national security is at risk when soldiers must worry about sexual advances from other same-sex soldiers. Chicago: American Marketing Association. A recent survey of a sample of 100 of our sociology majors indicated that the mean GPA was 3.1 with a standard deviation of 0.5. gov / rr / international / portals.html The State of the World's Children 2003 Provides an array of data on the conditions of children around the world: http://www.unicef.org/sowc03/tables/ index.html Population Reference Bureau Offers population information from around the world: http://www.prb.org FedStats Provides access to a wide array of federal statistics: http://www.fedstats.gov/ Data on the Internet Statistical Resources on the Web: The University of Michigan's Documents Center provides this collection of links to statistical data for a wide range of subjects. For instance, when the school climate is authoritative, kids from authoritative families may find it easier to fit in (Pellerin 2004). Was the grade you received in your last math class an accurate measure of your knowledge of the course material? "Children-TV Violence Link Has Effect." The idiographic model is interested in thoroughly explaining the sequence of events that lead to one particular outcome. It depends on the outcome. Consider the following test scores: 10, 85, 85, 85, 85,100 The range for this set of scores is 90 - i.e., the highest score (100) minus the lowest score (10). The New York Times Magazine (July 7) 6: 22-34. This process is repeated until a satisfactory sample size is achieved. (For a percentage breakdown of answers through the years, you can visit the GSS homepage (http://www.icpsr.unich.edu/GSS/) and look under the subject heading of abortion.) OPENING HOURS Appointment preferred as we may be performing surgeries. 2002). They do so for good reason. Why do you think hitting children is wrong? human.cornell.edu/. Rather, they will only contain notes that illustrate the idea or theme of a particular folder. Drug companies test new drugs not on all targeted patients, but rather on a much smaller group - a sample - of willing volunteers. Someone asks you to estimate the amount of time you spend each day on the Internet. In accordance with (Brislin et al.s (1973) back-translation procedure, the primary researcher (a native Chinese speaker who is also proficient in English) translated the measures from English into Chinese. Samples will seldom if ever perfectly capture the population they purport to represent. Correlations can exist at the group level without being present at the individual level. 1997). Furthermore, we examined whether power distance moderated the indirect effect of authoritarian leadership on employee performance through learning goal orientation. 44 change 92-3, 94 chronological files 173 Clinton's favorability ratings 98 closed-ended questions 130-4,138-9, 147 cluster sampling 115-16 Cockerham, William 7 cohort design 94, 99 cohorts 99 Cole, Jeffrey 79,143 common sense 8-9 Community Pharmacy 39 compensation 84 competence 19-20 complete observer 165-6 complete participant 165,167 composite measures 69 comprehension 21-2 concepts 47-8, 59, 60 empirical counterparts 49-50 operationalization 51-2 and research process 48-9 theoretical definitions 50-1 concurrent validity 64, 65-6 confidence interval 119, 204-8 confidence levels 119, 206-8 confidentiality 25-6, 30, 143 conflicts of interest 26-7 Conoley, J. C. 74 construct validity 66-7 Consumer Reports 32 contamination 84 content validity 63-4 contextual analysis 89 contingency questions 136-7 control group 82-3 convenience samples 117 Cook, Kenneth 91 correlation 79 correlation coefficients 186-7,192^1 correlational design 87 cover letters 134,141-2 covert research 167 Crandall, Rick 22 credential-based knowing 4-8 crime 36-7,126 criterion validity 64-6 Cronbach's alpha 69-70 cross-population generalizability 43 cross-sectional research designs 87, 93-4 Crouch, Wayne 91 Current Population Survey 144 Daily Telegraph 39 data 178 web resources 221-2, 225 data analysis 168-9, 222 data set 178 de Lorgeril, M. 44 debriefing 19 deductive research 49 Department of Energy 16,17, 20 Department of Health and Human Services 21-2, 28, 30 dependent variables 38-9, 75-6, 78-82 description 167-8 descriptive research 11-13 descriptive statistics 179 graphs and charts 187-94 summaries 179-87 design see research design Diener, Eduard 22 INDEX Dillman, Don 125 disproportionate stratified sampling 115 Disraeli, Benjamin 178 DNA 4, 33 double-barreled questions 129 Duneier, Mitchell 166-7 Durkheim, Emile 49 ecological fallacy 101-2 Einstein, Albert 92 El-Bassel, N. 13 electronic surveillance 23-4 electronic surveys 143 elements 106 empirical evidence 9,10 empirical validity 646 Erbring, L. 39 Erikson, Kai 52 ethics 16-17, 29, 30 cause no harm 17-19 complete participation 167 conflicts of interest 26-7 informed consent 19-22 Institutional Review Boards 28-9 reporting findings 27-8 right to privacy 22-6 web resources 222 evaluation research 11-12, 13, 223-4 event-based design 94, 99 experimental design 82-3, 90 and internal validity 83-4 limits 85-6 experimental group 82-3 experiments 39-40 explanatory research 11-12, 13 exploratory research 11-12 expressive role, focus groups 158 external burnout index 70 external validity 41-4, 45, 85-6, 105, 174 face validity 62-3 factorial experimental design 86 fear of crime 36-7, 62, 126 Fergusson, David 80 field research 164, 175 and causal analysis 88-90 files 172-4 informal interviews 169 notes 169-72 setting and knowing 165-7 tasks 167-9 validity 174 files 172-4 filter questions 136-7 fire alarms 37 Fischer, C. 36, 45 Fitzpatrick, K. M. 13 fixed-sample panel design 94, 95 fixed variables 78-9, 88 focus groups 157-9, 162, 224 formatting questionnaires 137-41 frequency distributions 179, 180, 188-9,190, 191 frequency polygons 188, 189, 190 full information 21 funding 26-7 Gallup 98, 99,108, 120, 121 Gal ton, Sir Francis 199 Gamson, William 158-9 Garraty, John 6 gatekeepers 165 Gay, Peter 6 Geertz, Clifford 168 General Social Survey (GSS) cross-sectional design 94 sensitive topics 155 structured interviews 150-1 trend analysis 99 validity 36-7, 62 web pages 60, 144 wording 126 generalizability 43, 174 Glaser, Barney 168 Goffman, Erving 23, 168 going native 167 233 234 INDEX Goode, Erich 10, 45 Grandell, Tommy 39 graphs 187-94,224-5 grounded theory 168 guides 149,151-4 Hager, M. 125 Hamilton, James 30 Haney, C. 18 happiness 50 Harrell, W. 58-9 Hensel,P. Both men were regarded as offering unassailable advice on childrearing. The "old" test, however, is expensive and invasive and patients don't like to go through the procedure. The question that begs to be answered is whether these findings are unique to this group? What's the best way to really know what it means to be President of the United States, a New York City firefighter, or a cast member of a Broadway production? Now imagine a twenty-item measure that alleges to document productive study skills in students. Palys and Lowman in their article "Anticipating Law: Research Methods, Ethics and the Law of Privilege" advocate making very strong promises of confidentiality and detail design strategies to safeguard such promises. The concept of compiling the world's knowledge in a single location dates back to the ancient Library of Alexandria and Library of Pergamum, but the modern concept of a general-purpose, widely distributed, printed encyclopedia originated with Denis Diderot and the 18th-century French encyclopedists. Imagine that you are a medical researcher and you are working on a new procedure to measure whether or not someone has a rare medical disorder. Some concrete proof of the townspeople's dissatisfaction with 26 THE RIGHT THING TO DO the researchers' privacy guarantees can be gleaned from the fact that the town publicly lampooned the researchers at their annual Fourth of July parade (Kimmel 1988). In particular, see the chapters entitled "Paradigms" and "Making Distinctions." Van Hook, Jennifer, Jennifer Click, and Frank Bean. Chesire, CN: Graphics Press. "Study Finds Positive Thinking Does Not Improve Cancer Survival, but Feels Better." Furthermore, the attention and care the interviewer gives to recording duties may come at the expense of attentive listening. To illustrate how measurement entails attaching numbers to the values of a variable, consider the variable "yearly salary." This problem of disrupting the routine is known as reactive effects in field research and it demands some careful attention in the planning stages of our research. Journal of Marriage and the Family 61: 300-310. It is essential to repeat this testing until we have controlled the influence of all likely rival explanations - i.e., all likely C variables. The median is a "mid-way" measure of central tendency. How does the area under the normal curve help you "see" the answer? A filter question is one that determines if it is appropriate or necessary for the respondent to read a subsequent set of questions. Ignore time and we run the risk of losing jobs, money, our health, and even our friends and loved ones. Pis may lack the social skills that are key to a good interview. Presumed incompetent? Prior studies consistently report positive relationships between learning goal orientation and employee performance. Must every detail of a study be shared with participants? In particular, focus on how the presence/ absence of explicit note taking influenced the quality of your notes as well as the quality of the interactions in the field. These C variables can then be introduced as control variables in the analysis of our survey data - we can control their influence on the observed relationship between variables A and B. For an animated demonstration of a sampling distribution see David Wallace's web page: http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~wallacd1/ssample.html. Do you exercise on a regular basis? Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc. Babbie, E. 2001. (Cross-sectional designs are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7.) (Field research is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.) 1989. When researchers want to identify an individuals parenting style, they often use a kind of rubric or questionnaire. Assessing a measure for its face validity merely requires that we ask if the measure "looks good" on surface (face) inspection. In going public about one's research agenda and in limiting one's involvement, field interaction may be strained and once again insight might be limited or superficial. Are homepages "reality" or "fantasy" documents? Seemingly countless hours of pretrial investigation or MEASUREMENT, INTERNAL, AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY 35 courtroom testimony could be foregone if we simply resorted to polygraph results for critical evidence of innocence or guilt. What's the best layout for the response alternatives? These files will prove 174 FIELD RESEARCH most relevant during the write-up phase of research when one needs to justify or explain or elaborate on various methodological strategies and decisions. Click "OK." What does the picture tell you about your data set? To conduct research, we must be able to work with concepts. Fusce dui lectus, congue vel laoreet ac, dictum vitae odio. Sampling strategies that are not based on probability theory and techniques leave the researcher in the dark with regard to either estimating sampling error or achieving any degree of confidence in how well the sample truly represents the larger population. Knowing what to do about the effect of question order, however, can be a tricky business. Authoritative parents take a firm stand, expecting their kids to behave responsibly. Indeed, if you think that a particular piece of research isn't worth planning, it probably isn't worth doing either! Neither of these tasks is easy. Higher power distance individuals are more inclined to legitimize the power differences between superiors and subordinates, and develop formal and less personalized relationships with their leaders (Tyler et al., 2000). New York: Basic Books. Only replication will tell. In the natural sciences, concepts are often expressed in symbolic notation. (Goffman 1961: ix-x) Description is the initial task of field research. For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions Devising good measures is not easy work. Working directly with people puts too much stress on me. Anyone interested in seeing some trend analysis in action should visit the Gallup web page. For each of the knowledge sources reviewed in this chapter, locate one or two ads/commercials that invoke these sources in order to convince us of the merits of their product claims. New York: W. H. Freeman. Yes. This margin of error will be the exact amount that will either be added to or subtracted from INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 205 the sample mean in order to bring it closer in line with a true population value. For a good example of such restricted involvement, see Anderson and Calhoun's work on male street prostitutes (2001). CAUSAL ANALYSIS 83 introduction of the independent variable (the nicotine patch) in the experimental group, we will then measure the smoking activity of both the experimental and control groups. They should also help the researcher "see" any change over time. More than 60 years later, survivors of the experimental group are suing the state of Iowa for emotional distress and fraudulent misrepresentation (Reynolds 2003). I kept two members of my family in mind (Luci and Jonathan) as "touchstones" for the tone of the book. Arsenio W and Ramos-Marcuse F. 2014. Which of the questions will allow you to address the issue of a spurious relationship between alcohol use and violence? In Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Final Report, http://tis.eh. Alcohol abuse has been cited as both a causal agent in producing violence (O'Farrell & Murphy 1995) as well as a consequence of victimization (El-Bassel et al. Thus, it is reasonable to hypothesize that authoritarian leadership may generate a positive effect on employee performance in Chinese organizations. Time-Based Knowing: Traditional Knowledge Consider a popular "fact" asserted by many in today's society: Gay soldiers have no legitimate place in the US military. It is to say that discoveries or breakthroughs are met with a healthy skepticism until they are subjected to some verification efforts - until they are subjected to replication. Conducting phone interviews in high crime areas is a safer option than going door to door for in-person interviews. We are conceptual beings. A Peanuts comic strip equated happiness with a warm puppy. We must show that our independent variable precedes the dependent variable in time (test of temporal ordering).
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